{"id":1950,"date":"2024-04-01T10:00:14","date_gmt":"2024-04-01T09:00:14","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.cardiff.ac.uk\/openfordebate\/?p=1950"},"modified":"2024-03-30T14:48:35","modified_gmt":"2024-03-30T14:48:35","slug":"types-of-social-influence-and-manipulation-without-intention","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.cardiff.ac.uk\/openfordebate\/types-of-social-influence-and-manipulation-without-intention\/","title":{"rendered":"Types of Social Influence and Manipulation Without Intention"},"content":{"rendered":"

In the previous two posts of this series on online manipulation, I outlined three <\/span>developments that warrant closer attention to digital influence <\/span>(here<\/a><\/span>)<\/span>, <\/span>and argued that <\/span>a peculiar <\/span>result is <\/span>the threat <\/span>of <\/span>unwitting <\/span>problematic forms of influence <\/span>due to the corrupting effect of the digital influence landscape (here<\/a><\/span>). <\/span><\/p>\n

In this blog post, I delve into the complex category of manipulation and why it deserves special attention in our understanding of social <\/span>i<\/span>nfluence in the digital age.<\/span> I begin by outlining two common but ill-conceived ways of thinking about social influence before I argue that <\/span>the digital influence landscape harbours more and more influences that fall into the grey area between persuasion and coercion. <\/span><\/p>\n

A<\/span> Misconception Surrounding Influence<\/span><\/p>\n

There’s a common misconception that <\/span>all forms of social influence<\/span> are<\/span> inherently and categorically bad. <\/span>For example, <\/span>commerce or politics are sometimes <\/span>dismissed wholesale as illegitimate <\/span>because they are <\/span>‘<\/span>attempts to influence people.<\/span>‘<\/span><\/p>\n

But <\/span>not all <\/span>i<\/span>nfluence is bad<\/span> per se<\/span>. <\/span>As Sunstein points out, <\/span>for example, <\/span>a <\/span>passenger<\/span>who<\/span> warns the driver of an obstacle <\/span>o<\/span>n the road is clearly influencing the driver<\/span> but not in a problematic way<\/span> (Sunstein 2016)<\/span><\/a>. <\/span>Similarly, a politician <\/span>might <\/span>influence you so that <\/span>you vote for him, but that in itself is not an issue<\/span> (it is, in a way, the point of democracy!)<\/span>. What matter<\/span>s<\/span> is <\/span>how<\/span> the politician influences you to reach that goal. <\/span><\/p>\n

Moreover, the wholesale dismissal of ‘influence’ is not only wrong but also dangerous because it suggests that there is no relevant difference and thus no <\/span>need to choose between influence that empowers people and influence that harms them.<\/span> The essential debate about what type of influence we want in our lives, as individuals and as a society, which I discussed in the previous blog<\/a> <\/span>would become obsolete <\/span>i<\/span>n this bleak, nihilistic picture. This would be a mistake. \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Therefore<\/span>, to g<\/span>ain a more nuanced perspective, it’s crucial to draw boundaries <\/span>that demarcate and categori<\/span>se<\/span> types of social influence<\/span>. Moral concepts like manipulation, deception, and coercion provide a framework to distinguish between different types of <\/span>i<\/span>nfluence<\/span> and <\/span>their relative (dis-)value<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Influence as a Broad Category<\/span><\/p>\n

I<\/span>nstead of <\/span>labelling<\/span> all <\/span>social <\/span>i<\/span>nfluence as negative, <\/span>we should <\/span>view “<\/span>social <\/span>influence” as <\/span>a broad, general<\/span> category<\/span> that<\/span> encompasses <\/span>various types <\/span>of <\/span>i<\/span>nfluence <\/span>like deception, coercion, and manipulation<\/span> (Coons and Weber 2014)<\/span><\/a>. <\/span><\/p>\n

For example, i<\/span>t is better to<\/span> re-focus from the general <\/span>question of whether the politician tries to influence you <\/span>to the more specific question of <\/span>how<\/span> he tried <\/span>to influence you<\/span>.<\/span> Did he use coercive, manipulative, deceptive influence, or a combination of those? <\/span><\/p>\n

The Benefit<\/span>s<\/span> of Talking about <\/span>Types of Social Influence <\/span><\/p>\n

If you are interested in the ethics of a specific<\/span>, concrete<\/span> instance of<\/span> influence \u2013 for example, whether Peter<\/span>‘<\/span>s <\/span>misleading email<\/span> to you yesterday was ok, or whether <\/span>YouTube<\/span>‘<\/span>s recommender system is ethically problematic \u2013 then <\/span>attending to the nuances of different types of social influence may <\/span>seem like<\/span> a<\/span>n unnecessary<\/span> distraction<\/span>. After all, you <\/span>might be able to<\/span> describe and evaluate the case without <\/span>worrying too much <\/span>about <\/span>whether the harm you are describing classifies as <\/span>‘<\/span>manipulation<\/span>‘<\/span> or <\/span>‘<\/span>deception<\/span>‘<\/span> (Barnhill 2022)<\/span><\/a>. <\/span>What matters, it may seem, is that you uncover and describe <\/span>the<\/span> harm that arises from the interaction. <\/span><\/p>\n

However, there <\/span>are also clear benefits from paying close attention to types of social influence. <\/span>Concepts like <\/span>‘<\/span>manipulation<\/span>‘<\/span> carry with them various moral and descriptive connotations. <\/span>T<\/span>hey are <\/span>theoretically and practically helpful generalisations <\/span>insofar as they immediately tell <\/span>us <\/span>what specific instances of social <\/span>i<\/span>nfluence have in common<\/span> in virtue of their type<\/span> (Coons and Weber 2014)<\/span><\/a>.<\/span> So, <\/span>suppose you establish that e.g. YouTube’s recommender system is manipulative. In that cas<\/span>e, we immediately learn about some of its descriptive features and <\/span>ethical status. <\/span><\/p>\n

Moreover, <\/span>concepts like manipulation can be useful generalisations to <\/span>highlight <\/span>descriptive and evaluative commonalities across concrete instances of influence that look widely different at first glance. <\/span>Below<\/span>,<\/span> I list several examples of purportedly manipulative influence<\/span>,<\/span> and while they differ in many aspects, they seem to share their <\/span>‘<\/span>manipulativeness<\/span>.<\/span>‘<\/span><\/p>\n

Therefore<\/span>, <\/span>identifying types of social influence allows us to formulate appropriate ethical and regulatory <\/span>views<\/span> that generalise beyond concrete instances, which are too many to evaluate individually<\/span>. S<\/span>ee, for example, the sprawling debates on the ethics of personalisation, nudging, microtargeting, framing, <\/span>steering, incentivising, gaslighting, and so on. Dedicated investigations are <\/span>essential<\/span>, but there is also a place for a generalising view on the factors that unite these influences<\/span>:<\/span> their manipulativeness<\/span>. <\/span>The generalising perspective <\/span>means we can <\/span>navigate the complex landscape of social influence more <\/span>efficiently<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n

No Accidents in Social Influence<\/span><\/p>\n

We can more easily distinguish relevant types of social influence when we set aside <\/span>merely accidental influence <\/span>and focus on non-accidental social influence<\/span>. <\/span><\/p>\n

In the typical case of social influence, we had to look at the intentions of the would-be manipulator. What did Peter ha<\/span>ve<\/span> in mind when he sent you that email? Di<\/span>d he consciously lead you astray? Why did the politician appeal to your irrational fear of <\/span>foreigners to win your vote? And <\/span>did <\/span>the designer <\/span>intentionally <\/span>use a deceptive pattern <\/span>to lure you into buying the product you don<\/span>‘<\/span>t need <\/span>(<\/span>Brignull<\/span> 2023)<\/span><\/a>?<\/span> T<\/span>he <\/span>agent’s motives<\/span> often <\/span>determine whether we have a case of persuasion, manipulation, or coer<\/span>c<\/span>ion. <\/span><\/p>\n

However, the <\/span>rise of digital influence asks us to rethink this conceptualisation and narrow focus on intentions. While I stand by the point that we should focus on non-accidental influence, I suggest that we widen our perspective to recognise cases of <\/span>non-intentional social or technical<\/span> functions <\/span>that explain the non-accidentality of the influence <\/span>(Klenk 2022, 2024)<\/span><\/a>. <\/span><\/p>\n

For example, <\/span>the <\/span>i<\/span>nfluence mediated by <\/span>YouTube<\/span>‘<\/span>s <\/span>recommender system aims <\/span>to maximise user <\/span>engagement<\/span>; in that sense,<\/span> it is non-accidental.<\/span> Metaphorically, we can say<\/span>that the recommender system <\/span>wants<\/span> you to spend more time on the <\/span>site. The metaphor is backed<\/span> up by a functional explanation of what the system optimises for.<\/span><\/p>\n

The focus on non-accidental, but not necessarily <\/span>intentional<\/span>,<\/span> influence <\/span>allows for a unified account of <\/span>i<\/span>nfluence exerted by <\/span>individuals, groups, and automated behaviour exerted by r<\/span>ecommender systems or generative AI <\/span>(Klenk 2020)<\/span><\/a>. <\/span>What<\/span>‘<\/span>s left is to <\/span>segment the area of non-accidental influence into different types. <\/span><\/p>\n

Conclusion and <\/span>Outlook <\/span><\/p>\n

The main points of this post are that <\/span>not all influence is <\/span>wrong<\/span>, that we should distinguish between different types of social influence<\/span>,<\/span> like persuasion and coerc<\/span>io<\/span>n, and that, in doing so, we focus on <\/span>non-accidental forms of social influence.<\/span><\/p>\n

In the next post<\/span> (<\/span>link<\/span>)<\/span> of this series, I will argue that the <\/span>grey area between persuasion and coercion seems to be expanding <\/span>in the digital age. Insofar as manipulation is located somewhere in that terrain, <\/span>there<\/span>‘<\/span>s a greater risk of manipulation and a more pressing need to delimit its boundaries. <\/span><\/p>\n

References<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

<\/a>Barnhill, A. (2022). How philosophy might contribute to the practical ethics of online manipulation. In M. Klenk & F. Jongepier (Eds.),<\/span> The Philosophy of Online Manipulation<\/span>(pp. 49\u201371). New York, NY: Routledge.<\/span><\/p>\n

<\/a>Brignull<\/span>, H. (2023).<\/span> Deceptive Patterns: Exposing the tricks tech companies use to control you<\/span>. Harry <\/span>Brignull<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n

<\/a>Coons, C., &\u00a0Weber, M. (2014). Manipulation: Investigating the core concept and its moral status. In C. Coons & M. Weber (Eds.),<\/span> Manipulation<\/span>: <\/span>Theory and practice<\/span> (pp. 1\u201316). Oxford: Oxford University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n

<\/a>Klenk, M. (2020). Digital Well-Being and Manipulation Online. In C. Burr & L. <\/span>Floridi<\/span>(Eds.),<\/span> Ethics of Digital Well-Being<\/span>: <\/span>A Multidisciplinary Perspective<\/span> (pp. 81\u2013100). Cham: Springer.<\/span><\/p>\n

<\/a>Klenk, M. (2022). Manipulation, injustice, and technology. In M. Klenk & F. Jongepier (Eds.),<\/span> The Philosophy of Online Manipulation<\/span> (pp. 108\u2013131). New York, NY: Routledge.<\/span><\/p>\n

<\/a>Klenk, M. (2024). Ethics of generative AI and manipulation: a design-oriented research agenda.<\/span> Ethics and Information Technology, 26<\/span>, 1\u201315. doi:10.1007\/s10676-024-09745-x.<\/span><\/p>\n

<\/a>Sunstein, C. R. (2016). Fifty Shades of Manipulation.<\/span> Journal of Behavioural Marketing<\/span>. doi:10.2139\/ssrn.2565892.<\/span><\/p>\n

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